Methodology

The Registre des Bénéficiaires Effectifs (RBE) lists natural persons holding > 25% of capital or voting rights

RBE data sourced from Pappers (API key required) — distinguishes direct and indirect stakes

Capital links upstream (shareholders) and downstream (subsidiaries) to reconstruct control chains

Official sources: INPI data.inpi.fr, Infogreffe beneficial ownership section